Introduction
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| Cholera outbreak Rohri 1869 |
The cholera and plague outbreaks in Rohri, Sukkur, Sindh, in September-October 1869 and June 1897 were important events. They showed local weaknesses and the global spread of infectious diseases in the 19th century. These epidemics caused 200 deaths in the cholera outbreak and 33 in the plague outbreak in Rohri. There were 537 cases and 391 deaths in the Sukkur district. This shows the severe impact of infectious diseases in colonial India. This article looks at these events during global pandemics. It discusses local figures like Sayed Imdad Hussain Shah and the colonial response. The article uses verified historical sources from around the world. We combine local details with global views. Our goal is to help a U.S. audience understand these crises. This is important for those interested in historical epidemiology and public health.
Global Context of 19th-Century Cholera and Plague Pandemics
Cholera Pandemics
The 19th century saw multiple cholera pandemics originating in the Ganges Delta of India, with the third (1852–1860) and fourth (1863–1875) pandemics aligning with the 1869 outbreak in Rohri. Cholera, caused by Vibrio cholerae, spread through contaminated water and food, exacerbated by poor sanitation and trade routes. By 1865, the fourth pandemic reached Northern Africa, killing 70,000 in Zanzibar in 1869–1870, and claimed 90,000 lives in Russia in 1866. In Europe, a localized epidemic in London’s East End in 1866 killed 5,596 due to contaminated water from the East London Water Company, as identified by epidemiologist William Farr. These global events underscore the widespread nature of cholera, with Rohri’s outbreak reflecting similar sanitation challenges.
Plague Pandemics
The 1897 plague outbreak in Rohri was part of the third global plague pandemic, which began in China in the 1850s and reached Bombay in 1896. The Bombay plague epidemic, which killed thousands and reduced the city’s population from 820,000 in 1891 to 780,000 by 1901, shared parallels with Rohri’s experience, including urban overcrowding and colonial containment measures. Globally, the plague spread to Europe, North Africa, and Russia, with significant mortality. The colonial response in India, including the Epidemic Diseases Act of 1897, authorized strict quarantines and property destruction, often sparking local resistance.
Local Impact in Rohri and Sukkur
Cholera Outbreak of 1869
In September-October 1869, Rohri faced a cholera outbreak that killed 200 people. This event coincided with the fourth cholera pandemic, which was particularly severe in Sindh due to its proximity to the Indus River, a potential source of contamination from seasonal flooding. The lack of modern sanitation infrastructure and limited medical knowledge meant that colonial authorities relied on rudimentary measures like quarantines, which were often ineffective. The high mortality rate in Rohri reflects the broader challenges of managing cholera in densely populated urban centers with poor water quality.
Plague Outbreak of 1897
The plague outbreak in June 1897 was even more disruptive, with the first case reported in Dargah Gali, a crowded area of Rohri. The epidemic resulted in 33 deaths in Rohri and affected 537 people across the Sukkur district, with 391 fatalities. To curb the spread, colonial authorities banned movement between Rohri and Sukkur, allowing travel only with special permits. The city was evacuated, and temporary camps were set up in Aror and Gol Aliwahan to house displaced residents. These measures disrupted trade and daily life, reflecting the severity of the crisis and the colonial reliance on containment over prevention. The plague’s impact extended across Sindh, mirroring the broader regional devastation seen in Bombay.
Colonial Public Health Response
The British colonial administration’s response to these outbreaks was shaped by the scientific and political debates of the time. In 1869, J.M. Cuningham, the Sanitary Commissioner, initially acknowledged cholera’s spread through fecal contamination but later adopted an anticontagionist stance, attributing epidemics to meteorological factors. This shift, influenced by local data and his observations during the 1869 epidemic, limited the effectiveness of interventions in Rohri. Quarantines were implemented but poorly enforced, and public health infrastructure remained inadequate.
By 1897, the plague prompted more aggressive measures under the Epidemic Diseases Act, including forced evacuations and property destruction. In Rohri, the evacuation to Aror and Gol Aliwahan and the restriction of movement between Rohri and Sukkur reflect these policies. However, such measures often provoked resistance, as seen in Bombay, where heavy-handed tactics led to riots. The establishment of the Indian Plague Commission in 1898 and subsequent sanitation reforms were direct outcomes of these crises, highlighting their long-term impact on public health policy.
Global and Local Lessons
The cholera and plague outbreaks in Rohri and Sukkur highlight the interplay between local conditions and global pandemics. Poor sanitation, overcrowding, and limited medical infrastructure exacerbated these crises, a pattern seen globally in places like London, Bombay, and Zanzibar. The colonial response, while aggressive in 1897, often prioritized trade over effective public health measures, as seen in the reluctance to acknowledge the Bombay plague. These events spurred advancements, such as the development of Haffkine’s anti-plague vaccine and improved sanitation systems, which laid the foundation for modern public health in India.
For a U.S. audience, these outbreaks offer lessons in the importance of proactive public health investments. The parallels with modern pandemics, such as COVID-19, underscore the need for robust sanitation, clean water access, and community engagement to mitigate infectious diseases.
References
- Based on oral history shared by Sayed Imdad Hussain Shah Rizvi of Kotai, Rohri
- Cuningham, J. M. (1884). Cholera: What Can the State Do to Prevent It?. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Available at: Harvard Library.
- Arnold, D. (1993). Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India. University of California Press. Google Books.
- Bynum, W. F. (1994). Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Core.
- Collins, A. E. (1996). The Geography of Cholera. In Cholera and the Ecology of Vibrio cholerae (pp. 255–294). Chapman and Hall.
- Sindhi Adabi Board. Sindh ji Tareekh (History of Sindh). Available at: Sindhi Adabi Board Online Library.
- Archive.org. Sindh ji Hindun ji Tareekh (History of Sindh’s Hindus). Archive.org.
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